Primary productivity Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Primary productivity - Lab Report Exampletime by calculating the amount of oxygen produced which is now proportional the amount of carbon bound to organic compounds such as carbohydrates in photosynthesis. In this experiment the light and dark bottle method was used.A set of 24 clean bottles each with a capacity 300ml were prepared. Twelve of the bottles were covered with aluminum foil and a black tape while the early(a) twelve were not covered. All the 24 bottles were then filled with algae water. All the bottles were then exposed to light for a period of 1 hour. fade out oxygen probes were prepared and allowed to stay in water for 5 minutes as the probe warmed up and the initial dissolved oxygen absorption recorded. Data in each bottle was collected by gently stirring the probe in the water sample until the readings were relatively stable for somewhat 30 seconds and the values recorded. The values for the light and the dark bottles were recorded and the means calculated. The r espiration rate, gross productivity and net productivity were then calculated. The means were compared victimization students t-test and considered significant at P The data obtained for the dissolved oxygen concentrations in the light and dark bottles were subjected to paired students t- test. The results obtained indicated that at that place was a significant (P The algae in the bottles exposed to light predominantly carry out photosynthesis as they trap light energy which is converted into chemical substance energy in the form of sugars. Photosynthesis leads to the production of O2 and thus explains the increased concentrations of the dissolved oxygen. In the dark bottle only respiration occurs since algae are C3 plants. Since in that location was no sunlight the plants did not manufacture more sugars but rather there was breakdown of the sugars to provide energy for cellular activities with the production of carbon

Business diversification of a confectionary food and beverage business Essay

Business diversification of a confectionary food and beverage business of coupled Kingdom - Essay ExampleThis report assesses the dashs and pattern of worldwide trade between these two countries especially trades and investment in the beverage industry. Implication of the outside(a) institutions on its initial entry into Indian market will be analysed. Finally, this report will recommend whether and how the federation suffer diversify its business into Indian market. Introduction Globalization has stimulated many successful firms in all many countries for diversification of their business into foreign market. It allows two different ways for international business expansion for these successful companies in their domestic countries. One is trade and another foreign direct investment. These factors have influenced one UK based Food and drunkenness Company named Crazy Food Private Limited to decide start its international diversification. The partnership has decided to diversit y into a developing boorish i.e. India. The company has successful portfolio that consist of processed food, ready to eat food, snacks foods as confectionary items and soft and energy drinks as beverage items. It has well developed two popular brands in UK market, Crazy Bite and Crazy Cola. The company wants to launch these two popular brands in India and it has noticed this confectionary market in India to be growing more in next five years. So, this report will provide a detailed investment analysis for this company to assess the viability of its international business diversification into Indian market. Answer a) study business system India is a developing country having a growing economy that is 12th largest economy in the world by nominal value of gross domestic product. The country has approximately more than 17% of world population among which more than 200 millions can be metameric as high pulmonary tuberculosis oriented urban people. This segment of people is having abov e average income level and higher(prenominal) purchasing power. This is one of the major strengths of the country for attracting foreign business institutions to enter into Indian market. According an analysis by World Bank, India is 4rth largest country in the world in terms of overall consumption and purchasing power of the total population of the country. 40 percent of this 200 million people are youth (IFC, n.d.). Therefore, growing purchasing and consumption trend of this large segment of people is the key attraction of this company in terms of potential customer base as youth are unremarkably the most potential target customer for any confectionary food and beverage producer. Apart from the huge customer base, next important key resources of the country has is fit youth labour and expertise. This is one of the most important recourses of the country which has become the main attraction of the foreign companies especially companies from developed countries like Crazy Food. Th e company can get sufficient labour in comparatively very low wage rate as compared to UK market rate due to the higher difference of currencies of these two countries. As a food and beverage company, Crazy Food needs huge work force for production and packaging, bottling etc. National political environment of India is stable as current government and only one major opponent do not have many conflicts that can affect any areas of business national

Forensic Accounting Review Questions (Easy) Essay

Forensic Accounting Review Questions (Easy) - Essay ExampleEither the management or the business relationship team are the most prone to engaging in these acts. Lack of business ethics and personal morals are the breeding grounds for these dishonest activities. It has been clear that individuals engage in fraudulent activities because of diverse motivations and stimulations. When it comes to revenue fraud, the likelihood is for the company to overstate and understate various parameters, we found that this is done by manipulating the sales, identification of conditional sales, sale of consignments, misstatement of the percentage of completion, abusing of the cut off dates, unauthorized shipment and premature recognition of revenue. Concerning the same issue of revenue, the collusion by the fraudsters can case to situations such as understatement of bad debts, overstatement of ending inventories, overstatement of the assets worth, and understatement of the liabilities among other d ubious means. All these aspects are under the motivation of the need to cover up mistakes or misrepresentation of the financial position of the company. The knowledge acquired is very swear outful to my future employer and me as an individual. In the workplace, we have diversity of people, just about of whom can falsify situations to their advantage. It is important to aware of what is ethical in the workplace in order to avoid being trapped on such situations. Sometimes the management whitethorn coerce an employee to engage in a fraudulent application, without such knowledge one is likely to commit fraud unknowingly. Another thing is that lessons learnt stirred my curio in apprehension business law it has prompted me to start engaging this area since it can easily result to personal and organizational damages. In addition, it has opened my brainiac to the understanding business of dynamics, including the manipulations that are likely to be made in order to misrepresent infor mation for a particular organization. The group was very important in the understanding of the topic. I participated in the group activity by handling the section that I was assigned to research on and went ahead to help in the report writing. The group members were very cooperative hence facilitating timely achievement of results. I also presented a fraudulent case scenario that enhanced the understanding of the topic. The case had featured in one of the local dailies it helped us relate very well what we learnt in class. Each member of the group completed the trade union movement assigned to them on time hence the ability of the group to finish the project on time. Despite the many lessons learnt some of the topic areas were challenging and presented some level of difficult. During the lecture sessions I found difficult in understanding the legal provisions of that are related to fraudulent activities. However, after extensive and insistent reading I was able to comprehend the s ub-topic. Question 2 Fraudulent activities are not easily identified, it is highly unlikely that a fraudulent activity will be realized unless the parties involved leak information or some auditing system unearths it. These are the likely means through which tips come along, without which it may be impossible to recognize a fraudulent activity. I do not think a fraudulent activity is recognized in the origin instance. The high level of secrecy that is involved hampers the process of

EPILEPSY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

EPILEPSY - Essay ExampleThe epilepsy happens when the electrical impulses bursting in brain escapes their normal limits. The electricity impulses can be transferred muscles resulting in convulsions and twitches. However the buzz off of epilepsy in many people is unknown. There atomic number 18 many types of seizures like idiopathic, generalized and partial epilepsy. As per, Better health ( 2013) Epilepsy is a condition that affects the brain and causes repeated seizures, also known as fits. Epilepsy is a common occurrence in UK and children with this disease encounter learning problems ordinarily with writing, reading and comprehension. They may also need extra help with everyday skill.Many children and adults do not achieve much with epilepsy and the life is difficult when it comes to studies or work. This assignment looks at the role of adult, mental and child nursing in supporting the epilepsy patient and the cultural and psychological effect of the disease on the item-by-ite m and family. This topic was chosen because epilepsy has an adverse effect on the patient and family members. There is lot of stigma around this disease and also patients experience disability. The seizures give salary increase to neurological disturbance and burden on family members. They also face problem in life as unemployment, educational disability and poor health.In UK, epilepsy is a common condition among children and adult. In a year, more than thousands of people die because of epilepsy. As per, Epilepsy Action ( 2012) In 2009, 1,150 people died in the UK because of epilepsy, and most of these deaths were associated with seizures. The principal cause of seizure-related death is sudden unexpected death in epilepsy, accounting for an estimated 500 deaths each year.The epilepsy has different effect on people and culture has accepted significance to the disease onset. In UK, people lead a stressful life and it can contribute to the onset of disease. Also certain people are h ighly influenced to drugs and

Health Care Communication Methods Essay Example for Free

Health C be Communication Methods EssayCustomer service also known as discourse, now days almost al slip personal manner involves several people, especially when it involves an elderly love one. Having an elderly family member is a genuinely sensitive topic believe it or not and although very common is still something that most still do not know how to deal with and do not quite attend. It is hard to have to face that fact that your Grandp atomic number 18nts, parents, aunts, uncles, and some cartridge holders siblings are faced with life threatening illnesses such as Alzheimers and delirium and have forgotten who you are along with a host of other things. As an administrator of a Nursing Home you could be faced with some(prenominal) unlike situations and because uncomplainings in a nursing home are sometimes unable to understand or communicate on their own, it is important to have ways to get in contact with several contrasting family members in the event of an emergen cy.Family members of these elderly patients still have lives of their own and may live in different states or countries even and then in the worst case, you have some patients in Nursing Homes who do not have family members at all. Most of the time there will be a social worker who is responsible for the wellbeing of these patients in this type of situation. There is an enormous misunderstanding of the role of communication services in healthcare.Nursing home administrators act as the patients liaison between staff and doctors, in the event that a Nursing Home receives observation that the organization is being purchased by a national group, and because of new policies to be implemented, many of the patients will be displaced, it is important to know the way to communicate with apiece individuals family members. Residents have rights and these rights being violated can cause serious issues with the law. Below is a short list of patients rights when concerning unfair transfer or di scharge.Protection against raw Transfer or Discharge You cant be sent to another nursing home, or made to leave the nursing home, unless any of thefollowing are trueIt is necessary for the welfare, health, or safety of you or others.Your health has declined to the heading that the nursing home cant meet your care needs.Your health has improved to the point that nursing home care is no longer necessary.The nursing home hasnt been paid for services you received.The nursing home closesIn this scenario it is important that you inform the residents that they are being displaced and that they need to approve the release of their medical entropy. The best way to do this, since it is concerning medical records, would be privately. HIPAA protects the privacy of individually identifiable health information and if violated you could face jail time and hefty fines so you should use the best communication method that fits the scenario. The best method of communication I horizon would be best for this scenario was traditional and electronic communication because they both have some convenience to the residents. The right amount of information and the right information is require to explain to family members and patients what is happening to this facility. Finding the right laws and rights is what needs to happen to make sure the company is not in violation of that patient. Finding the best way to communicate with each patient and their family is most important when it comes to getting the message across professionally without seeming to disregard their personal concerns.There are advantages and disadvantages of development social media, traditional, and electronic communication .Traditional, the oldest of the three some of the many advantages that tradition communication has is that you are person with the person you are communicating with, which is better because you are getting an immediate reply to whatever it is that you are trying to get. Theres a feeling of comm unity because youre better able to socialize and interact with one another. We quickly build a bond that sets the foundation for trust and ultimately, lasting business relationships. There are so many different issues that have to be considered when communicating with patients and their family members, in this scenario most likely there will need to be some convincing that this is best for the patient/ their loved ones.Displacing them does not have to be a bad thing it all depends on how it is presented to them and their reaction to the initial breaking of the news. It is important that the administrator has found a new facility that offers everything that the patients(s) will need to accommodate them completely. Communication is a part of the process to better the patients life and once the patient and/or their family is on board then you pretty much have tackled the mountain. Forcing information on people when they are too distraught to understand it or accept it (over informing) may only heighten their stress. Philip Muskin(1998) calls this truth dumping and warns people against it.Health-related Information can be confusing and frightening. It is best to not ply unnecessary information to the patients and family members, just enough for them to understand completely. (Communication About Health Pg. 196) Being and Administrator means being able to communicate effectively with your patients no matter their mental and health condition and being able to communicate with their family members too. It is important to not over-do anything when communicating because it could cause a reaction you dont want to deal with.There are different ways of communicating messages and different billets and as an Administrator in this particular scenario it is important to know what tone of communication to use when letting the patients and their family members know what is going on. It is a good idea to know where the patient will be transferred to and to have a tract and goo d information on where the patient is going so that maybe the family member and the patients will be comfortable about the big news.References1. Journal denomination . (2014, Fall). People living with dementia components of communication, (Pg.1). 2. . (2005). Communicating About Health Current Issues And Perspectives. Retrieved from, HCS/320 Health Care Communication Strategies website.

Nursing Research Problem Essay Example for Free

Nursing Research Problem EssayInfections are a common ca recitation of both morbidity and mortality in premature infants examples of infections accept necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) and sepsis (infection of the bloodstream). Infections in premature infants result in prolonged ventilation, prolonged hospitalization, and higher medical costs, and finish cause neurodevelopment impairment (Manzoni et al., 2009). The use of high-potency antibiotics can lead to resistant strains of bacteria and unbendablei tout ensembley damage the infants liver and/or kidney function. Within the past decade, inquiry has turned from purpose treatments to finding methods to reduce infections. Breastfeeding and homosexual milk has been well supported through research to provide immunity and positive outcomes for preterm and lavish-term infants. Breastfeeding and human milk provides provisionsal, gastrointestinal, immunological, developmental, and mental benefits to preterm infants and plays a n important role on their long-term health and development (Callen Pinelli, 2005). The components of breastmilk that support immunity include lactoferrin, lysozymes, interferon, and sIgA antibody (Callen Pinelli, 2005).Specifically, lactoferrin (LF) is an iron-binding glycoprotein found not only in breastmilk, but overly in saliva, tears, and other bodily secretions LF has biological functions which include immunomodulatory, germicide, and antioxidant topics, and inhibits produce of pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses (Yen et al., 2009). The depict functions of LF support the protective role in immunity. The purpose of this investigation is to receive the effects of oral lactoferrin appurtenance on reducing infections in preterm infants.Nature of Problem and Importance to Nursing PracticeA nosocomial infection is described as an infection that is acquired after 48 hours of hospital admission (Rodriguez et al., 2010). In neonates,a late-onset infection is defined as an i nfection obtained after the perinatal catch (Manzoni et al., 2009). Nosocomial infections include infections of the gastrointestinal piece of land (necrotizing enterocolitis, NEC), blood stream (sepsis), and lung (pneumonia). The effects of an infection in a preterm infant can lead to poor growth, inauspicious long-term neurological sequelae, increased space of hospital stay, and a substantial cost to families, hospitals, and society (Rodriguez et al., 2010, p. 207). The risk of nosocomial infections increases with the decreasing birth charge and gestational age, and roughly 21% of very low birth-weight (VLBW) infants will encounter a late-onset infection (Stoll et al., 2002).The most common gastrointestinal infection in premature infants is NEC, alter 2.6% to 28% of VLBW infants (Lin et al., 2005). NEC is widely considered as a multifactorial disease, with no specific pathogenesis three major factors have been proposed the presence of a pathogenic organism, the challenge of enteral feeding, and altered enteric mucosa integrity (Lin et al., 2005). NEC is characterized by necrotizing injury to the intestine that requires antibiotic treatment and, in severe cases, surgical preventative (Brooks et al., 2006, p. 347). Reduction of infections in preterm infants is of high priority and active research is being performed to find safe preventative measures, improve patient outcomes, and decrease hospital length of stay.Lactoferrin is an iron-binding protein found in mammalian milk and is important in innate immune host defenses (Manzoni et al., 2009). Partial digestion of LF in the stomach produces peptides called lactoferricin that contain more potent antimicrobial activity (Yen et al., 2009). Human colostrum contains more LF than breastmilk, saliva, tears, or other mucosa linings in the body. Studies have been performed to mold bovine or porcine LF effect on prevention of infection in mice and rat pups conclusions showed a reduction in the frequency of bact erial infections in the GI bundle while promoting the growth of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacteria species, which are generally believed to be beneficial to the host (Yen et al., 2009, p. 591).Bovine, porcine, and human LF molecules are similar, and bovine and porcine LF has been reported to show higher antimicrobial activity compared to human LF (King et al., 2007). In 2001, the US Food and Drug Administration declared bovine lactoferrin generally recognized as safe(CFSAN, 2001). Bovine or human LF can be given as a formula additive, breastmilk additive, or given to patients by swabbing of the mouth, either actively feeding or with nil per os (NPO) statuses. Research studies have now been performed on the effects of bovine or porcine LF on prevention of infections in VLBW and preterm infants, and LF shows to be a promising actor of prevention.Evidence-based Practice QuestionEvidence-based practice (EBP) is defined as a practice that involves clinical decision-making based on the be st available shew, with an emphasis on evidence from disciplined research (Polit Beck, 2008, p. 753). Nursing practices are changing in the NICU to include swabbing of the infants mouth with colostrum every six hours to assist in prevention of infection and improve feeding tolerance. The following question is developed to determine the outcomes of infection prevention by LF in preterm infants Does the supplementation of LF decrease the accompaniment of nosocomial infections in preterm infants?Conceptual/Theoretical FrameworkThe studies brush uped did not mention a abstract or theoretical framework pertaining to the relationship of the subjects investigated. A conceptual model of nursing, Levines Conservation gravel, can be utilized in applying the methods investigated to provide care and prevention of infection in preterm infants. Levines Conservation Model is focused in promoting adaptation and maintaining wholeness using the principles of conservation (Current Nursing, 2010) . The model guides the nurse to focus on the influences and responses at the organismic level and hit the goals of the model through the conservation of readiness, structure, and personal, and social integrity (Current Nursing, 2010).Conservation of energy in preterm infants is necessary for appropriate growth, and is achieved by adequate rest and nutrition fighting an infection in preterm infants results in NPO status and irritability, thus expending energy. The conservation of structural integrity means to prevent physical breakdget and labour healing, and is the consequence of an effective immune system (Current Nursing, 2010). The technique of LF supplementation and its potential preventative outcome on infection helps the patient conserve energy and structural integrity.Variables and FindingsManzoni et al. (2009) performed a prospective, multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial examining whether oral supplementation with bovine LF alone or in combinatio n with Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) reduces late-onset sepsis in 472 VLBW infants. The independent variable of this ask is the supplementation of bovine LF or LGG and the dependent variable is the occurrence of infections in VLBW infants. The memorise randomly allocated infants into three groups groups consisted of a control group (n = 168, infants supplemented with a placebo) and an data-based group (n = 153, infants given bovine LF alone and n = 151, infants given bovine LF with LGG). The main outcome measured the first episode of late-onset sepsis (sepsis occurring after 72 hours of birth) all tests were two-tailed, and P .05 was considered statistically large (Manzoni et al., 2009).When stratifying for birth weight, Manzoni et al. (2009) noted a significant decrease in late-onset sepsis in extremely low birth-weight (ELBW, birth-weight 1000g) infants (P = .002 for bovine LF v. control and P = .002 for bovine LF plus LGG v. control) whereas it was not significant in infa nts weighing 1001 to 1500 g (P = .34 for bovine LF v. control and P = .07 in bovine LF plus LGG v. control). Overall, the results showed a significant decrease in the occurrence of infection in VLBW infants in the data-based groups versus the control group (P = .002 for bovine LF v. control and P .001for bovine LF plus LGG v. control) (Manzoni et al., 2010).A double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study examined the impact of bovine LF supplementation to bottle-fed infants (King et al., 2006). The participants include 52 infants between the age of 0-4 weeks of age, 34 weeks of gestational age, and 2000 g, and who were strictly bottle-fed. The infants were randomized in a double-blind fashion the control groupreceived a small drug of bovine LF and the experimental group received a higher dose of bovine LF (King et al., 2006). The independent variable is the supplementation of the higher dose of bovine LF and the dependent variable is the impacts observed in the first year of life.T he outcomes measured included diarrhea, upper respiratory infection (URI), acute otitis media (AOM), and lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI). The infants were examined six times throughout the year on the measured outcomes. The results showed a significant decrease in the occurrence of LRTIs in the experimental group than in the control group (P 0.05) (King et al., 2006). Even though this study did not include preterm infants 34 weeks, the effects of bovine LF are still apparent in the protection against infection.Yen et al. (2009) performed a study to examine the effects of porcine LF as a selective decontamination of the digestive tract (SDD) regimen in neonatal mice. Transgenic mice were generated to express porcine LF the neonatal mice fed from the transgenic mice and were then challenged with pathogens to evaluate in vivo antimicrobial activity of porcine LF (Yen et al., 2009). The control group contained mice that were fed normal milk and the experimental group containe d mice that were fed the porcine LF (Yen et al., 2009). The independent variable is the transgenic mice with porcine LF supplementation and the dependent variable is the antimicrobial activity observed.The outcome measures included the growth rate of the mice pups, the state of the intestinal tract mucosa, and the circulating cytokines (Yen et al., 2009). Yen et al. (2009) concluded that the experimental group of neonatal mice showed a significant reduction of severity of illness (P .01), a significant inhibition of microbial survival in the intestinal tract (P .01), and a significant decrease in the number of bacteria cultured (P .05) than in the control group. The authors proposed that porcine LF is an ideal natural SDD regimen for the prevention of nosocomial infections in critically ill patients (Yen et al., 2009).ConclusionResearch has proven the high incidence of a nosocomial infection and its adverse outcomes in a preterm infant. The efforts of research have changedto find ing a method to reduce or prevent nosocomial infections in preterm infants. Human colostrum is best in supplying the infant with LF to fight infection, but other methods of supplying LF are being studied. Research has recently proven that the supplementation of bovine LF has decreased the occurrence of infections in VLBW and preterm infants. proximo research should include a larger, neonatal population specifically targeting VLBW and/or ELBW infants and the effect of LF supplementation on prevention of NEC. Further studies are needed to determine the dosing, duration, and type of LF (bovine, porcine, or human) that will be most effective in the prevention of infection in preterm infants without causing adverse effects or bigotry (Venkatesh Abrams, 2010).ReferencesBrooks, H. J. L., McConnell, M. A., Corbett, J., Buchan, G. S., Fitzpatrick, C. E., Broadbent, R. S. (2006). Potential prophylactic value of bovine colostrum in necrotizing enterocolitis in neonates an in vitro study on bacterial attachment, antibody levels, and cytokine production. FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology, 48, 347-354. doi10.1111/j.1574-695X.2006.00151.xCallen, J. Pinelli, J. (2005). A review of the literature examining the benefits and challenges, incidence and duration, and barriers to breastfeeding in preterm infants. Advances in Neonatal Care, 5(2), 72-88. doi10.1016/j.adnc.2004.12.003Current Nursing. (2010). Levines four conservation principles. Retrieved on phratry 23, 2010 from http//currentnursing.com/nursing_theory/Levine_four_conservation_princples.htmlKing, J. C., Cummings, G. E., Guo, N., Trivedi, L, Readmond, B. X., Keane, V., de Waard, R. (2007). A double-blind, placebo-controlled, pilot study of bovine lactoferrin supplementation in bottle-fed infants. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 44(2), 245-251.Lin, H., Su, B., Chen, A., Lin, T., Tsai, C., Yeh, T., Oh, W. (2005). Oral probiotics reduce the incidence and severity of necrotizing enterocoli tis in very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics, 115 (1), 1-4. doi10.1542/peds.2004-1463Manzoni, P., Rinaldi, M., Cattani, S., Pugni, L., Romeo, M. G., Messner, H., Farina, D. (2009). Bovine lactoferrin supplementation for prevention of late-onset sepsis in very low birth-weight neonates. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 302(13), 1421-1428. Retrieved on September 4, 2010 from http//jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/302/13/1421Polit, D. E., Beck, C. T. (2008). Nursing research generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice (8th ed.). Philadelphia Lippincott Williams Wilkins.Rodriguez, N. A., Meier, P. P., Groer, M. W., Zeller, J. M., Engstrom, J. L., Fogg, L. (2010). A pilot study to determine the safety and feasibility of oropharyngeal administration of own mothers colostrum to extremely low-birth-weight infants. Advances in Neonatal Care, 10(4), 206-212.Stoll, B. J., Hansen, N., Fanaroff, A. A., Wright, L. L., Carlo, W. A., Ehrenkranz, R. A., Poole, W . K. (2002). Late-onset sepsis in very low birth weight neonates the experience of the NICHD neonatal research network. Pediatrics, 110(2), 285-291. Retrieved September 9, 2010 from http//pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/110/2/285US Food and Drug Administration, CFSAN/Office of Food Additive Safety. (2001). Agency response letter GRAS notice (No. GRN 000077). Retrieved on September 23, 2010 from http//www.fda.gov/Food/FoodIngredientsPackaging/GenerallyRecognizedAsSafeGRAs/GRASListings/ucm154188.htmVenkatesh, M. P., Abrams, S. A. (2010). Oral lactoferrin for the prevention of sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants. CochraneDatabase of Systematic Reviews, Art. No. CD007137 (5). doi10.1002/14651858.CD007137.pub2Yen, C., Lin, C., Chong, K., Tsai, T., Shen, C., Lin, M., Chen, C. (2009). Lactoferrin as a natural regimen for selective decontamination of the digestive tract recombinant porcine lactoferrin expressed in the milk of transgenic mice protects ne onates from pathogenic challenge in the gastrointestinal tract. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 199, 590-598. doi10.1086/596212

Goals of Linguistic Essay Example for Free

Goals of Linguistic EssayMr. 1. Introduction 1. 1. Approaching the issue The task of setting out (to use a torpid word) the determinations of a kind-hearted employment whitethorn be approached in a variety of ways depending on conditions such as who is involved in the activity and who has the power to determine the goals. In the case of the goals of a scientific discipline, the question may, in principle, be approached by established scientific methods * Deductive approach The highest and closely public goal is taken as an axiom, more specific and lower-level goals are deduced from it. * Inductive approach By methods of the sociology of acquaintance, the goals actually pursued by scientists may be ascertained by sociological methods, it may be ascertained what goals a community thinks should be pursued by the sciences that it entertains. The deductive approach suffers at least from the following shortcomings * The postulation of the highest goal is itself out berth the sco pe of science. * Clean deduction is only possible in the logical disciplines. What is called deduction in (the rest of) philosophy, the humaneistic discipline and complaisant sciences is really informal and heavily dependent on the interpretation of words.The inductive approach suffers at least from the following shortcomings * Just like other people, scientists occasionally pursue selfish or idiosyncratic goals, which a purely inductive approach would not be able to separate out. * The extra-scientific members of a social community be they politicians or citizens pee-pee limited presuppositions of making a rational constituent to the discussion of the goals of a science, lacking both association and dwell of the reputation and possibilities of scientific work and presuppositions for appreciating the spiritual side of target areaive acquaintance (see below).On the basis of available evidence, it is safe to say that few of them rat roll in the hay between scientific in sight and technological progress. Thus, if one wants at all a scientific approach to the problem of the goals of a discipline, one would have to combine as usual deductive and inductive methods, hoping that they will compensate for each others shortcomings. It would certainly be reasonable to do this scientific work (from cadence to time). However, it has apparently not been done.I will therefore abide by taking a common-sense approach to the problem, informed both by some epistemology of linguistics and by some experience with linguistic work. 1. 2. Fundamentals Like any human activity, linguistics has a place in a teleonomic hierarchy (see teleonomische Hierarchie) which is headed by its ultimate goals. Science is the pursuit of objective knowledge/understanding (Greek episteme, German Erkenntnis). The attainment of such knowledge is its ultimate goal. This goal is itself subordinate to the goal of human life, which is the benefit of the conditio humana.It is in the nature of human cognition as opposed to Gods cognition , that it can be fully achieved only in intercourse. To say that the goal is objective knowledge is therefore almost tantamount to saying that it is rational communication. This rephrasing also serves the purpose of avoiding a static conception of objective knowledge. In the more specific discussion below, the role of communication in the achievements of the goals of a science will come up again. Understanding has two sides, a spiritual and a practical one.* On the spiritual side, the human mind is enriched if it understands something and this in itself is a contribution to improving the conditio humana. * On the practical side, understanding something is a presupposition for controlling it. Controlling1 the world in which we live is another contribution to improving the conditio humana. Some sciences make a stronger contribution to the spiritual side, others make a stronger contribution to the practical side. This is the basis for the distinction between pure and applied science. Linguistics is the study of human speech communication.Understanding this object has a purely spiritual aspect, which constitutes what tycoon be called pure linguistics and what is more commonly called general linguistics. It also has a practical aspect, which concerns the role of dustups in human lives and societies and the possibilities of improving it. This epistemic use up constitutes applied linguistics. Given the divergence in the epistemic interest of pure and applied science, there can be no universal schema by which the goals and tasks of a science should be systematized.As discussed elsewhere (see Wissenschaft), there is a basic distinction between logical, empirical and hermeneutic approaches. Linguistics shares components of all of them. hither we will focus on the tasks of linguistics as an empirical discipline. For such a discipline, the main tasks are 1. intricacy of a conjecture of its object 2. accompaniment and definition of its object 3. elaboration of procedures for the solution of practical problems in the object area. In what follows, the main goals of linguistics will be characterized, at a general level, according to this schema.2. Theory the nature of human language The spiritual aspect of the human understanding of some object is realized in the elaboration of a theory of that object. In this respect, the task of linguistics consists in the elaboration of a theory of human language and its relation to the languages. Its most important aspects include * the structure(s) and function(s) of human language and languages * the relationship between unity and diversity of human languages * linguistic change * acquisition of ones native languageIn characterizing the nature of human language, linguistic theory also delimits it against other kinds of semiosis, both synchronically in the comparison of spoken and written languages with sign languages, whistling languages and, furthermore, wit h animal languages, and diachronically in the comparison with primate semiotical systems from which human language may have evolved. 3. Empiry documentation and definition of languages As recalled above, linguistics is (among other things) an empirical science.In such a discipline, there is a necessary interrelation between the elaboration of a theory of the object and the description of the object one informs the other. Furthermore, since speech and even languages are volatile, they have to be documented. The tasks of linguistics in this area may be systematized as follows 1. language documentation recording, representation, analysis and archiving of speech events and texts that represent a certain language 2. language description 1. the setting of the language * ethnographic * social/cultural * genealogical 2. the language system* semantic system grammar, lexicon * expression systems phonology, writing The documentation of a language mustiness(prenominal) be such that people wh o do not have access to the language itself can use the documentation as a surrogate for as many purposes as possible. In particular, it should be possible to develop a description of a language on the basis of its documentation. The description makes explicit the meanings that the language expresses and the functions it fulfils what it codes and what it leaves uncoded , and represents the structure of the expressions that afford this.It does all of this in the most systematic and comprehensive way possible. Such a description may be used for a variety of purposes, most of which are mentioned below in the section on applied linguistics. Both documentation and description take the historical dimension of the object into account. That is, in the synchronic perspective, they are systematic, while in the diachronic perspective, they are historical. 4. Practice application of linguistics The daily use of language for communication and cognition is replete with all kinds of tasks and pr oblems that require science for a proper solution.Some of them are * compilation of grammars, dictionaries and text editions for various purposes * native and unlike language teaching * testing of linguistic proficiency * standardizing and planning languages * devising and improving writing systems * development and maintenance of special languages and terminologies * analysis and alleviation of communication problems in social settings * diagnosis and therapy of aphasic impairments * intercultural communication, translation and interpreting * communication technology speech technology, automatic speech and text production and analysis, machine translation, dealer exploitation The descriptions recrudesced in pure linguistics not only descriptive linguistics, but also socio-, psycho-, neuro-, ethno- etc. linguistics are exploited for the formulation of adept procedures by which tasks arising in the fields enumerated may be solved. And contrariwise, the demands arising from thos e practical fields are taken as challenges by theoretical and descriptive linguistics to produce theories and descriptions that respond to them. 5.Methodology epistemological formulation and working tools The nature of the goal of science objective knowledge requires the elaboration and testing of methods by which putative knowledge may be attained, verified/falsified and applied in the solution of practical or interdisciplinary problems. * The epistemological side of this activity is a stock-taking of the particular nature of the activity of the linguist, its goals, conditions and possibilities.There will be reflection on the logical, empirical and hermeneutic nature of the object of linguistics and the approaches appropriate to each facet. * The practicable side of methodology is the elaboration of particular methods within such a methodological frame of the discipline. Given the interplay of specific aspects of the linguistic object with specific problems and purposes, specif ic sets of methods may be developed to deal adequately with such aspects of the object, to solve such problems and serve such purposes.This involves * in the deductive perspective, the operationalization of concepts and theorems and the elaboration of tests * in the inductive perspective, the elaboration of standards of representation of linguistic data and of tools for processing them. While a contribution from general epistemology may be expected for the epistemological side of linguistic methodology, its operational side is entirely the responsibility of the particular discipline. Its status as a scientific discipline crucially depends on its fulfillment of this task. 6. Cooperation interdisciplinary fertilization.The articulation of science into disciplines is, first of all, a necessity of the division of labor. As observed above, a particular discipline is constituted by the combination of an object with an epistemic interest. The object is just a segment of the overall object area susceptible of scientific insight, the epistemic interest depends on all kinds of factors, and the combinations of these two elements are wherefore manifold. In other words, no discipline is autonomous and self-contained. The contribution that it makes to human understanding can only be assessed if it is compared and combined with other disciplines.The theories developed by a discipline must define their object in such a way that it becomes transparent where they leave off, i. e. where the interfaces for the combination of related theories are. And they must be formulated in such a way that non-specialists can understand them and relate them to the epistemic interest pursued by them. Thus, a linguistic theory has to make explicit what it purports to cover and what not for instance, only the linguistic system, not its use and linguists should say what they think is required for taking care of the rest.Moreover, the products of linguistic description and documentation must be represented in such a way that non-linguists may use them. For instance, there must be * grammars usable by foreign language curriculum designers * semantic descriptions usable by ethnographers * models of linguistic competence testable by neurologists * formal grammatical descriptions usable by programmers. Finally, linguistics must be capable of and receptive in taking up insights and challenges from other disciplines.For instance, * phonological concepts must be related to phonetic concepts * models of linguistic activity must be inspired by findings of psychology and neurology * models of linguistic competence must be able to account for the performance of plurilingual persons. Interdisciplinary cooperation is the touchstone of the communicative capacity of a scientific community. A discipline that can neither inspire other disciplines nor be inspired by them gets isolated and unnecessary. 7. Conclusion Above, tailfin areas of goals of linguistics have been identified 1.Theory the nature of human language 2. Empiry documentation and description of languages 3. Practice application of linguistics 4. Methodology epistemological reflection and working tools 5. Cooperation interdisciplinary fertilization These goals do not belong to the same level. Goal 1, the elaboration of a theory of its object, is the highest goal of any science. As already mentioned, goal 1 is interdependent with goal 2, because a theory of an object area presupposes its proper description, and a proper description presupposes a theory on which it can be based.Furthermore, the production of documentations and descriptions is a service to the society. This is even more true of goal 3 The solution of daily-life tasks and problems is a practical contribution to the improvement of the conditio humana. It has to be done by someone, and if it is done by the discipline that has the relevant know-how, it is both better for the solution of the problem and better for the social standing of the di scipline. Finally, the demands emerging from extra-scientific practice may feed back into the content and form of descriptions.Goals 4 and 5 are more science-immanent. Neither the elaboration of a methodology nor interdisciplinary cooperation are anything that would be of direct relevance outside a scientific context. They are, however, preconditions for the attainment of goals 1 3. As said before, no serious theory can be developed, no adequate descriptions and documentations can be produced, and no practical problems can be solved, without an arsenal of pertinent methods and without a systematic interchange with disciplines that partly share the object area or the epistemic interest.